In this tutorial, we’ll demonstrate how to write a very basic URL parser in Rust using the nom parser combinator library. We’ll cover the following in detail:
nom work?nomnompath in Rustnom: The final test
Parser combinators are higher-order functions that can accept several parsers as input and return a new parser as its output.
This approach enables you to build parsers for simple tasks, such as parsing a certain string or a number, and compose them using combinator functions into a whole recursive descent parser.
Benefits of combinatory parsing include testability, maintainability, and readability; each moving part is rather small and self-isolated, making the whole parser a composition of modular components.
If you’re new to the concept, I highly recommend reading Bodil Stokke’s excellent tutorial on parser combinators in Rust.
nom work?nom is a parser combinator library written in Rust that enables you to create safe parsers without hogging memory or compromising performance. It relies on Rust’s strong typing and memory safety to produce parsers that are both correct and performant, as well as functions, macros, and traits to abstract the error-prone plumbing.
To show how nom works, we’ll create a basic URL parser. We won’t implement the whole URL spec; that would far exceed the scope of this code example. Instead, we’ll take a few shortcuts.
The ultimate goal is to be able to parse valid URLs, such as https://www.zupzup.org/about/?someVal=5&anotherVal=hello#anchor and http://user:[email protected]:8080, into a coherent structure, returning a somewhat usable error for invalid URLs in the process.
And since testability is touted as one of the benefits of parser combinators, we’ll write tests for most of the components to see that advantage in action.
Let’s get started!
nomTo follow along, all you need is a recent Rust installation (1.44+).
First, create a new Rust project:
cargo new --lib rust-nom-example cd rust-nom-example
Next, edit the Cargo.toml file and add the dependencies you’ll need:
[dependencies] nom = "6.0"
Yup, all we need is the nom library in the latest version (6.0 at the time of writing).
When writing a parser, it often makes sense to define the output structure first to get a feel for which parts you’ll need and what they look like.
In this case, we’re parsing a URL, so let’s define a structure for it:
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub struct URI<'a> {
scheme: Scheme,
authority: Option<Authority<'a>>,
host: Host,
port: Option<u16>,
path: Option<Vec<&'a str>>,
query: Option<QueryParams<'a>>,
fragment: Option<&'a str>,
}
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum Scheme {
HTTP,
HTTPS,
}
pub type Authority<'a> = (&'a str, Option<&'a str>);
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum Host {
HOST(String),
IP([u8; 4]),
}
pub type QueryParam<'a> = (&'a str, &'a str);
pub type QueryParams<'a> = Vec<QueryParam<'a>>;
Let’s go through this line by line.
The fields are arranged according to the order in which they occur in a regular URI. First, we have the scheme. In this case, we’ll limit ourselves to http:// and https://, but note that there are many other schemes available.
Next comes the authority part, which consists of a username and an optional password and is, in general, fully optional.
The host can be either an IP (in our case, only an IPv4), or a host string, such as example.org, followed by an optional port, which is just a number, such as localhost:8080.
After the port, we have the path, which is a sequence of /-delimited strings, such as /some/important/path. This is optional as well, same as the query and fragment parts, which denote the ?query=some-value&another=5 and #anchor parts of a URL. The query is an optional list of string tuples and the fragment is simply an optional string.
If you’re confused by the lifetimes ('a) used throughout these types, don’t worry too much about them; they won’t really affect how we write the code. Essentially, instead of allocating a new string for each part of the URL, we can use pointers to parts of the input string and, as long as that input lives as long as our URI struct, we’re fine.
Before we start parsing, let’s define a helper for converting a valid scheme to our Scheme enum:
Learn more →impl From<&str> for Scheme {
fn from(i: &str) -> Self {
match i.to_lowercase().as_str() {
"http://" => Scheme::HTTP,
"https://" => Scheme::HTTPS,
_ => unimplemented!("no other schemes supported"),
}
}
}
With that out of the way, let’s take it from the top and start parsing the scheme.
nomBefore we start, let’s talk about error handling in nom. While we’re not going to go all the way here, we’ll try to at least give the caller a general idea of what went wrong at which parsing step.
For our purpose, we’ll use nom’s context combinator. In nom, a parser generally returns the following type:
type IResult<I, O, E = (I, ErrorKind)> = Result<(I, O), Err<E>>;
In our case, we have a result type that returns a tuple of the input value (&str — the input string), which is the remaining string to parse, and an output value. It also returns an error value in case the parsing fails.
The standard IResult only allows us to use Nom’s built-in error types, but what if we want to create custom errors or add some context to these errors?
The ParseError trait and VerboseError type enable us to build our own errors and add context to existing errors. For this simple example, we’ll add some context to our parsing errors. To make this convenient, let’s define our own result type:
type Res<T, U> = IResult<T, U, VerboseError<T>>;
This is essentially the same, except that it takes a VerboseError. This means we can use Nom’s context combinator, which allows us to implicitly add error context to any parser.
nom‘s official docs cover these options, but error handling is not the most intuitive thing.
To see it in action, let’s create our first parser for the scheme.
To parse the URL scheme, we want to match on either http://, or https://, nothing else. And since we’re using a powerful parser combinator library, we don’t need to write low-level parsers like that by hand. nom has us covered.
This list of macros parsers and combinators has a great overview of what to use in certain use cases.
We’ll use the tag_no_case parser and the alt combinator to basically say, “Either lowercase (input) should be http://, or https://.” For this tutorial, we’ll just use normal functions, but do note that many of the parsers and combinators in nom are also available as macros.
Here’s how it looks in Rust using nom:
fn scheme(input: &str) -> Res<&str, Scheme> {
context(
"scheme",
alt((tag_no_case("HTTP://"), tag_no_case("HTTPS://"))),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| (next_input, res.into()))
}
As you can see, we use the context combinator to wrap our actual parser and add the scheme context to it, so any errors triggered here will be marked with scheme in the result.
Once the whole parser is assembled using parsers and combinators, it’s called with the input string, which is our only input parameter. Then we map the result — which, as mentioned above, consists of the remaining input and the parsing output — to a different form, converting our parsed scheme into a Scheme enum with the .into() trait implementation mentioned earlier.
Let’s see if it works by writing a few tests:
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
use nom::{
error::{ErrorKind, VerboseError, VerboseErrorKind},
Err as NomErr,
};
#[test]
fn test_scheme() {
assert_eq!(scheme("https://yay"), Ok(("yay", Scheme::HTTPS)));
assert_eq!(scheme("http://yay"), Ok(("yay", Scheme::HTTP)));
assert_eq!(
scheme("bla://yay"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
("bla://yay", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
("bla://yay", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Alt)),
("bla://yay", VerboseErrorKind::Context("scheme")),
]
}))
);
}
}
As you can see, in the success case, we get back our parsed Scheme enum and the remaining string to be parsed ("yay"). Also, if there is an error, we get a list of the different errors that were triggered and the context we defined ("scheme").
In this case, both tag calls failed and, because of that, the alt combinator failed as well since it couldn’t produce a single value.
That wasn’t too hard. Then again, we basically just parsed a constant string. Let’s try something more advanced by trying to parse the authority part.
If we remember our URI struct from before, and especially the authority part, we’ll see that we’re searching for a fully optional structure. If it exists, there needs to be a username and an optional password.
This was the type alias we used:
pub type Authority<'a> = (&'a str, Option<&'a str>);
How could we go about this? In a URL, it looks like this:
https://username:[email protected]
The :password is optional, but in any case, there will be an @ at the end, so we can start by using the terminated parser. This gives us a string, which is terminated by another string.
Within the authority, we see the : as a delimiter. According to the handy docs, it looks like we could use the separated_pair combinator, which gives us two values separated by a certain string. But how do we deal with the actual text? There are several options, one of which is to use the alphanumeric1 parser. This generates an alphanumeric string that has at least one character.
For simplicity, we won’t worry about which characters can be used in different parts of the URL. It’s not relevant to writing and structuring the parser and would just make everything longer and more inconvenient. For our purposes, we’ll assume that most parts of the URL can consist of alphanumerics and, in some cases, hyphens and dots — which is, of course, wrong, according to the URL Standard.
Let’s look at the assembled authority parser:
fn authority(input: &str) -> Res<&str, (&str, Option<&str>)> {
context(
"authority",
terminated(
separated_pair(alphanumeric1, opt(tag(":")), opt(alphanumeric1)),
tag("@"),
),
)(input)
}
Let’s see if it works by running a few tests:
#[test]
fn test_authority() {
assert_eq!(
authority("username:[email protected]"),
Ok(("zupzup.org", ("username", Some("password"))))
);
assert_eq!(
authority("[email protected]"),
Ok(("zupzup.org", ("username", None)))
);
assert_eq!(
authority("zupzup.org"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(".org", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
("zupzup.org", VerboseErrorKind::Context("authority")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
authority(":zupzup.org"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(
":zupzup.org",
VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric)
),
(":zupzup.org", VerboseErrorKind::Context("authority")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
authority("username:passwordzupzup.org"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(".org", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
(
"username:passwordzupzup.org",
VerboseErrorKind::Context("authority")
),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
authority("@zupzup.org"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(
"@zupzup.org",
VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric)
),
("@zupzup.org", VerboseErrorKind::Context("authority")),
]
}))
)
}
Looking good! We have cases for both values being there, the password missing, the @ missing, and several other error cases.
Let’s move on to the host part.
Since the host part can consist of either a host string or an IP, this step will be more complex. To make matters worse, we can also have an optional :port at the end.
To keep things simple, we’ll only support IPv4 IPs. We’ll start with the host. Let’s look at the implementation and go through it step by step:
fn host(input: &str) -> Res<&str, Host> {
context(
"host",
alt((
tuple((many1(terminated(alphanumerichyphen1, tag("."))), alpha1)),
tuple((many_m_n(1, 1, alphanumerichyphen1), take(0 as usize))),
)),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, mut res)| {
if !res.1.is_empty() {
res.0.push(res.1);
}
(next_input, Host::HOST(res.0.join(".")))
})
}
The first thing you’ll notice is that there are two options (alt). In both cases, there is a tuple, a chain of parsers, which all have to work.
In the first case, we want to have one or more (many1) alphanumeric strings, including a hyphen, terminated with a . and ending with a TLD (alpha1).
The alphanumerichyphen1 parser looks like this:
fn alphanumerichyphen1<T>(i: T) -> Res<T, T>
where
T: InputTakeAtPosition,
<T as InputTakeAtPosition>::Item: AsChar,
{
i.split_at_position1_complete(
|item| {
let char_item = item.as_char();
!(char_item == '-') && !char_item.is_alphanum()
},
ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric,
)
}
This is a bit complex, but it’s basically just a copied version of nom’s alphanumeric1 parser, with the - added. I’m not sure if this is the best way to do it, but it works!
In any case, there is a second option in a host, which is the case of one single string, such as localhost.
Why are we representing this in such a complex way with this useless-seeming many_m_n with 1 and 1? The issue here is that, within the alt combinator, all options have to return the same type — which, in this case, is a tuple of a string vector and another string.
We also see this in the map function, where, if the second part of the tuple isn’t empty (the top-level domain), we add it to the first part of the tuple. At the end, we create a HOST enum, joining the string parts with a . and creating the original host string.
Let’s write some tests:
#[test]
fn test_host() {
assert_eq!(
host("localhost:8080"),
Ok((":8080", Host::HOST("localhost".to_string())))
);
assert_eq!(
host("example.org:8080"),
Ok((":8080", Host::HOST("example.org".to_string())))
);
assert_eq!(
host("some-subsite.example.org:8080"),
Ok((":8080", Host::HOST("some-subsite.example.org".to_string())))
);
assert_eq!(
host("example.123"),
Ok((".123", Host::HOST("example".to_string())))
);
assert_eq!(
host("$$$.com"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
("$$$.com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric)),
("$$$.com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::ManyMN)),
("$$$.com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Alt)),
("$$$.com", VerboseErrorKind::Context("host")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
host(".com"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(".com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric)),
(".com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::ManyMN)),
(".com", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Alt)),
(".com", VerboseErrorKind::Context("host")),
]
}))
);
}
Let’s move on to the IP case. At first, we need to be able to parse each individual part of an IPv4 IP (e.g.: 127.0.0.1):
fn ip_num(input: &str) -> Res<&str, u8> {
context("ip number", n_to_m_digits(1, 3))(input).and_then(|(next_input, result)| {
match result.parse::<u8>() {
Ok(n) => Ok((next_input, n)),
Err(_) => Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError { errors: vec![] })),
}
})
}
fn n_to_m_digits<'a>(n: usize, m: usize) -> impl FnMut(&'a str) -> Res<&str, String> {
move |input| {
many_m_n(n, m, one_of("0123456789"))(input)
.map(|(next_input, result)| (next_input, result.into_iter().collect()))
}
}
To get each individual number, we try to find one to three consecutive digits using our n_to_m_digits parser and convert them to a u8.
With this out of the way, we can look at how to parse a full IP to an array of u8:
fn ip(input: &str) -> Res<&str, Host> {
context(
"ip",
tuple((count(terminated(ip_num, tag(".")), 3), ip_num)),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| {
let mut result: [u8; 4] = [0, 0, 0, 0];
res.0
.into_iter()
.enumerate()
.for_each(|(i, v)| result[i] = v);
result[3] = res.1;
(next_input, Host::IP(result))
})
}
In this case, we’re looking for exactly three ip_num, followed by a . and another ip_num. In the mapping function, we then concatenate these individual results to the Host::IP enum with an array of u8.
Again, we’ll write a few tests to make sure this works:
#[test]
fn test_ipv4() {
assert_eq!(
ip("192.168.0.1:8080"),
Ok((":8080", Host::IP([192, 168, 0, 1])))
);
assert_eq!(ip("0.0.0.0:8080"), Ok((":8080", Host::IP([0, 0, 0, 0]))));
assert_eq!(
ip("1924.168.0.1:8080"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
("4.168.0.1:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
("1924.168.0.1:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Count)),
("1924.168.0.1:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Context("ip")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
ip("192.168.0000.144:8080"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
("0.144:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
(
"192.168.0000.144:8080",
VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Count)
),
("192.168.0000.144:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Context("ip")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
ip("192.168.0.1444:8080"),
Ok(("4:8080", Host::IP([192, 168, 0, 144])))
);
assert_eq!(
ip("192.168.0:8080"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
(":8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Tag)),
("192.168.0:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Count)),
("192.168.0:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Context("ip")),
]
}))
);
assert_eq!(
ip("999.168.0.0:8080"),
Err(NomErr::Error(VerboseError {
errors: vec![
("999.168.0.0:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Nom(ErrorKind::Count)),
("999.168.0.0:8080", VerboseErrorKind::Context("ip")),
]
}))
);
}
To put it all together, we need another parser that tries both an IP and a host and returns a Host:
fn ip_or_host(input: &str) -> Res<&str, Host> {
context("ip or host", alt((ip, host)))(input)
}
path in RustThe next step is to tackle is the path. Here, again, we’ll just assume that strings within the path can only contain alphanumeric strings with hyphens and dots, using the following helper to parse them:
fn url_code_points<T>(i: T) -> Res<T, T>
where
T: InputTakeAtPosition,
<T as InputTakeAtPosition>::Item: AsChar,
{
i.split_at_position1_complete(
|item| {
let char_item = item.as_char();
!(char_item == '-') && !char_item.is_alphanum() && !(char_item == '.')
// ... actual ascii code points and url encoding...: https://infra.spec.whatwg.org/#ascii-code-point
},
ErrorKind::AlphaNumeric,
)
}
To parse the path, we want /-delimited strings parsed to a string vector:
fn path(input: &str) -> Res<&str, Vec<&str>> {
context(
"path",
tuple((
tag("/"),
many0(terminated(url_code_points, tag("/"))),
opt(url_code_points),
)),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| {
let mut path: Vec<&str> = res.1.iter().map(|p| p.to_owned()).collect();
if let Some(last) = res.2 {
path.push(last);
}
(next_input, path)
})
}
We’ll always start with a /. This is already a valid path, but we can also have an additional 0, or more (many0) /-terminated strings, with a final, optional string (e.g., index.php).
In the mapper, we check if the third part of the tuple (the last part) is there and, if so, push it to the path vector.
Let’s write some tests for the path as well:
#[test]
fn test_path() {
assert_eq!(path("/a/b/c?d"), Ok(("?d", vec!["a", "b", "c"])));
assert_eq!(path("/a/b/c/?d"), Ok(("?d", vec!["a", "b", "c"])));
assert_eq!(path("/a/b-c-d/c/?d"), Ok(("?d", vec!["a", "b-c-d", "c"])));
assert_eq!(path("/a/1234/c/?d"), Ok(("?d", vec!["a", "1234", "c"])));
assert_eq!(
path("/a/1234/c.txt?d"),
Ok(("?d", vec!["a", "1234", "c.txt"]))
);
}
Looks good! We get the different parts of the path and the remaining string and everything is in a useful vector.
Let’s finish strong by parsing the query and the fragment parts of the URL.
The path is basically a key-value pair: the first one comes after a ? and the rest are delimited with &. Again, we’ll restrict ourselves to the limited url_code_points.
fn query_params(input: &str) -> Res<&str, QueryParams> {
context(
"query params",
tuple((
tag("?"),
url_code_points,
tag("="),
url_code_points,
many0(tuple((
tag("&"),
url_code_points,
tag("="),
url_code_points,
))),
)),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| {
let mut qps = Vec::new();
qps.push((res.1, res.3));
for qp in res.4 {
qps.push((qp.1, qp.3));
}
(next_input, qps)
})
}
This is actually quite nice because the parser is intuitive and readable. We’re parsing a tuple of the first key-value pair after the ?, separated with a = and then 0 or more of the same, starting with & instead of ?.
Then, in the mapper, we simply put all of the key-value pairs into a vector and have our structure defined in the beginning:
pub type QueryParam<'a> = (&'a str, &'a str); pub type QueryParams<'a> = Vec<QueryParam<'a>>;
Here’s a couple of basic tests:
#[test]
fn test_query_params() {
assert_eq!(
query_params("?bla=5&blub=val#yay"),
Ok(("#yay", vec![("bla", "5"), ("blub", "val")]))
);
assert_eq!(
query_params("?bla-blub=arr-arr#yay"),
Ok(("#yay", vec![("bla-blub", "arr-arr"),]))
);
}
The last part is the fragment, which is just a # followed by a string:
fn fragment(input: &str) -> Res<&str, &str> {
context("fragment", tuple((tag("#"), url_code_points)))(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| (next_input, res.1))
}
After all these the complex parsers we’ve covered, this is child’s play. For good measure, let’s write some sanity-check tests:
#[test]
fn test_fragment() {
assert_eq!(fragment("#bla"), Ok(("", "bla")));
assert_eq!(fragment("#bla-blub"), Ok(("", "bla-blub")));
}
nom: The final testLet’s put it all together into a top-level uri parser function that uses all the parts we defined above:
pub fn uri(input: &str) -> Res<&str, URI> {
context(
"uri",
tuple((
scheme,
opt(authority),
ip_or_host,
opt(port),
opt(path),
opt(query_params),
opt(fragment),
)),
)(input)
.map(|(next_input, res)| {
let (scheme, authority, host, port, path, query, fragment) = res;
(
next_input,
URI {
scheme,
authority,
host,
port,
path,
query,
fragment,
},
)
})
}
We have a mandatory scheme, followed by an optional authority, followed by a mandatory ip or host. Then we have optional port, path, query parameters, and a fragment.
In the mapper, the only thing left is to create our URI struct from the parsed elements.
This is the point where you can see how nice and modular this whole structure is. If the uri function is your starting point, you can just go from top to bottom looking at each individual parser to understand what the whole thing is doing.
Of course, we’ll need some tests for uri as well:
#[test]
fn test_uri() {
assert_eq!(
uri("https://www.zupzup.org/about/"),
Ok((
"",
URI {
scheme: Scheme::HTTPS,
authority: None,
host: Host::HOST("www.zupzup.org".to_string()),
port: None,
path: Some(vec!["about"]),
query: None,
fragment: None
}
))
);
assert_eq!(
uri("http://localhost"),
Ok((
"",
URI {
scheme: Scheme::HTTP,
authority: None,
host: Host::HOST("localhost".to_string()),
port: None,
path: None,
query: None,
fragment: None
}
))
);
assert_eq!(
uri("https://www.zupzup.org:443/about/?someVal=5#anchor"),
Ok((
"",
URI {
scheme: Scheme::HTTPS,
authority: None,
host: Host::HOST("www.zupzup.org".to_string()),
port: Some(443),
path: Some(vec!["about"]),
query: Some(vec![("someVal", "5")]),
fragment: Some("anchor")
}
))
);
assert_eq!(
uri("http://user:[email protected]:8080"),
Ok((
"",
URI {
scheme: Scheme::HTTP,
authority: Some(("user", Some("pw"))),
host: Host::IP([127, 0, 0, 1]),
port: Some(8080),
path: None,
query: None,
fragment: None
}
))
);
}
It works! You can find the full example code at GitHub.
What a ride! I hope this article got you excited about parsers and especially parser combinators in Rust.
The nom library, besides being ridiculously fast and foundational to many production-grade libraries and systems, provides a great API and some really good docs.
The Rust ecosystem offers more options for parsing, such as the combine library, which also implements parser combinators, and pest.
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One Reply to "Parsing in Rust with nom"
Nice post